Water Contamination: Way Forward

Clean and plentiful water provides the foundation for prosperous communities. We rely on clean water to survive, yet right now we are heading towards a water crisis. Changing climate patterns are threatening lakes and rivers, and key sources that we tap for drinking water are being overdrawn or tainted with pollution. Dirty water is the world's biggest health risk, and continues to threaten both quality of life and public health in the global village. When water from rain and melting snow runs off roofs and roads into our rivers, it picks up toxic chemicals, dirt, trash and disease-carrying organisms along the way. Many of our water resources also lack basic protections, making them vulnerable to pollution from factory farms, industrial plants, and activities like fracking. This can lead to drinking water contamination, habitat degradation and beach closures. Despite the many existing pressures on our water resources, there are cost-effective solutions that will allow us to transform our relationship with water. To address increasing water scarcity this paper is an attempt to promote investments and policies that increase water use efficiency and decrease water waste. There are several causes of water pollution in India. However, five main causes are Urbanization; Industries; Agricultural runoff and improper agricultural practices; Withdrawal of water and Religious and Social Practices.

Water pollution is a major environmental issue in India. The largest source of water pollution in India is untreated sewage. Other sources of pollution include agricultural runoff and unregulated small scale industry. Most rivers, closed most of the time due to improper design or poor maintenance or lack of reliable electricity supply to operate the plants, together with absentee employees and poor management. The waste water generated in these areas normally percolates into the soil or evaporates. The uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban areas causing unhygienic conditions and releasing pollutants that leach into surface and groundwater. The deaths due to water pollution were attributed to five diseases -- acute diarrhoeal diseases, enteric fever (typhoid), viral hepatitis, cholera and acute encephalitis. Of these, acute diarrhoeal disease alone has claimed the major share of lives.

WATERBORNE DISEASES

Waterborne diseases are those that are transmitted by drinking unhealthy water. Unfortunately, they are a major cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in children in our country. About 20 per cent of the communicable diseases in India are waterborne. Poor sanitation, improper storage of water and lack of proper waste disposal are the main causes of water contamination. A recent report by the United Nations says that more than three million people in the world die of water-related diseases due to contaminated water each year, including 1.2 million children. In India, over one lakh people die of water-borne diseases annually. It is reported that groundwater in one-third of India’s 600 districts is not fit for drinking as the concentration of fluoride, iron, salinity and arsenic exceeds the tolerance levels. About 65 million people have been suffering from fluorosis, a crippling disease due to high amount of fluoride and five million are suffering from arsenicosis in West Bengal due to high amount of arsenic. A World Resources Report says: about 70 per cent of India’s water supply is seriously polluted with sewage effluents. The UN reported that India’s water quality is poor - it ranks 120th among the 122 nations in terms of quality of water available to its citizens. Water-borne diseases like cholera, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea erupt every year during summer and rainy seasons in India due to poor quality drinking water supply and sanitation. Five most dangerous water related diseases that occur in India, which are described as follows

  Ø  Cholera: Cholera is a water related disease, and is diarrhoeal in nature. It can kill in hours if left unattended. Cholera strikes when one ingests water that is infested with the Vibrio Cholerae bacterium.

  Ø  Diarrhoea: Diarrhoeal infection is spread through food and drinking water that has been contaminated. A diarrhoeal attack can last up to 2 weeks and leave the person completely dehydrated.

  Ø  Malaria: Malarial fever is spread by the Plasmodium parasite mosquito that breeds in water bodies like lakes, paddy fish and stagnant water. Malaria can kill a child who does not have the immunity against malaria

  Ø  Typhoid:   Fluctuating high fever, exhaustion, sleepiness, diarrhoea etc are the signs of typhoid. The infection spreads through contaminated food and water or through close contact with an infected person.

  Ø  Filariasis: Filariasis is a parasitic disease and affects people who live near unsanitary water bodies or sewages.  Filariasis is spread by mosquitoes that breeds in fresh and stagnant water bodies and is the host of the filarial nematode worm. This worm affects humans and leads to elephantitis.

 

 

CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is caused due to several reasons. Few major causes of water pollution are:

Sewage and Waste Water: Sewage, garbage and liquid waste of households, agricultural lands and factories are discharged into lakes and rivers. These wastes contain harmful chemicals and toxins which make the water poisonous for aquatic animals and plants.

Dumping: Dumping of solid wastes and litters in water bodies causes huge problems. Litters include glass, plastic, aluminum, Styrofoam etc. Different things take different amount of time to degrade in water. They affect aquatic plants and animals.

Industrial Waste: Industrial waste contains pollutants like asbestos, lead, mercury and petrochemicals which are extremely harmful to both people and environment. Industrial waste is discharged into lakes and rivers by using fresh water making the water contaminated.

Oil Pollution: Sea water gets polluted due to oil spilled from ships and tankers while traveling. The spilled oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge polluting the water.

Acid Rain: Acid rain is pollution of water caused by air pollution. When the acidic particles caused by air pollution in the atmosphere mix with water vapor, it results in acid rain.

Global Warming: Due to global warming, there is an increase in water temperature. This increase in temperature results in death of aquatic plants and animals. This also results in bleaching of coral reefs in water.

Eutrophication: Eutrophication is an increased level of nutrients in water bodies. This results in bloom of algae in water. It also depletes the oxygen in water, which negatively affects fish and other aquatic animal population.

TREATING POLLUTED WATER

It is very important to prevent the polluting of water bodies and remove existing contaminants or reducing the concentration of these contaminants so as to make it fit for desired use. Following are some of the ways of treating polluted water:

Industrial Treatment: The raw sewage is needed to be treated correctly in a water treatment plant before it can be safely released into the environment. To reduce the amount and toxicity of waste, it is passed through a number of chambers and chemical processes in water treatment plant.

Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates in gas is called Denitrification. It is an ecological approach to prevent leaching of nitrates in soil. It stops ground water from getting contaminated.

Ozone Waste Water Treatment: Ozone waste water treatment method is becoming very popular. In this method, the pollutants in water are broken down by an ozone generator. Ozone oxidizes bacteria, molds, organic material and other pollutants in water.

Septic Tanks: Septic tanks are used to treat sewage at the place of location instead of treating it in any plant or sewage system. This system is used at the individual building level. The sewage is separated into solid and liquid components and treated separately.

 

 

CONTROL OF BIOFILMS:

Biofilm in water systems consists of a growing substance of bacteria surrounded with a self-generated slime layer that attaches to the inside of pipes, sprinklers, drippers, nozzles, sieves, valves, storage tanks, etc. Combined with other organic and mineral pollution it becomes difficult to remove inside layer, which is known as the notorious biofilm. Without treatments a biofilm will exist in all water systems. It causes clogging of water system and biofilm give the possibility to plant pathogens to hide themselves. Also non pathogen and micro organisms contribute to the growth of bio-films. Besides clogging problems, a biofilm gives also a hidden place for plant pathogenic bacteria, fungi and viruses. Via water supply these pathogens can attack plants and their roots.

No doubt, disinfectants obviously control biofilm growth, but increased dose pose health problems too. In addition, unpleasant taste and odour are results of increased dosing. The question arises: What are other methods to control biofilm growth? Some studies say biofilm growth improves the efficiency of systems by reducing pipe roughness initially; however it increases when pipes are old. What is the better cheaper method to clean biofilm from older pipes? Simply by adding the Archaea (also called archaebacterium) species to the matrix, all biofilm can be eliminated. There will be zero need for disinfectant. The Archaea reduce all organic matter into its elemental form. It is non pathogenic and non mutational. (pH range of 5.5 to 10.0; Temp range 350 F to 1850 F).  Cost is pennies per application.

Archaea are microorganisms which are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity of structure but radically different in molecular organization. They are now believed to constitute an ancient group which is intermediate between the bacteria and eukaryotes. Archaea are considered as any of the unicellular microorganisms that resemble bacteria but are genetically distinct from bacteria and eukaryotes, in certain aspect of their chemical structure such as composition of its cell walls. They are considered as a separate kingdom in some classification system but a division of the prokaryotes in others. They often inhabit under extreme environmental conditions such as high temperature and salinity. One in the three-domain system (the other are bacteria and Eukaryota) which includes halophiles (microorganisms that may inhabit extremely salty environments), methanogens (microorganisms that produce methane), and thermophiles (microorganisms that can thrive extremely hot environments). Archaea or archaebacteria evolved separately from eubacteria and eukaryotes. They are similar with eubacteria in being prokaryotes and lacking distinct cell nucleus. They differ in terms of ribosomal structure, the possession of introns (in some species) and in membrane structure or composition. They are similar to eukaryotes in ways that Archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes: notably the enzymes involve in transcription and translation. They are regarded to be living fossils and survivors of an ancient group of organisms that bridged the gap in evolution between eubacteria and eukaryotes.

Use chloramines, Weak disinfectant but persistent and low DBP formation, Possible nitrite produced in long systems. In order to control becoming better the proliferation of biofilm in the pipes we need to consider the following points:

        Ø  Chois the lining of the pipes.

        Ø  Optimize the profile volumes.

        Ø  Ensure adequate flushing of the pipelines during commissioning.

        Ø  Master water leaks from the outside to the inside and vice versa.

        Ø   Optimize the contact time water / disinfectant

        Ø  Ensure adequate disinfectant residual rate (it must not exceed the rate allowed by the standard)

Maintain process control whatever disinfectant is being used. Practice an aggressive flushing problem, one that will strip biofilms, clean water storage tanks which can serve as storage reservoirs for organism growth, including pathogens and nitrifying bacteria. If you can use free chlorine, stay with that. If not, careful control of chloramination must be practiced or nitrification of the total chlorine concentration will ensue. The only way to remove biofilm from services is by shock dosing with chlorine dioxide @ 200 ppm. Keep the water in the service pipeline for 2 to 3 hours. Then drain out the water. Once all the biofilm is removed from the pipeline system, you can then move to a constant dosing of the drinking water @ 1ppm dose. USEPA has approved the use of chlorine dioxide in drinking water up to a dose of 5ppm. Once the water is constantly dosed with chlorine dioxide there will be no growth of new biofilm.

While there is no way to eliminate biofilm, as said above, shock dosing of chlorine dioxide at intervals will certainly help. There are many bio-dispersants, mostly low molecular weight polymers, which help in flushing out the dead bugs and debris from the system, but these, are not allowed for drinking water. Another constraint is that there is no easy / practical method for flushing out debris from drinking water distribution lines. The biofilm might reduce friction losses and even improve water quality but will most probably cause corrosion in pipelines. Pigging of pipelines will work if nothing else does. If using chloramines and biofilm growth becomes problematic, switch to a period feed of free chlorine. But this should be done as a last resort, not routinely. GenEon Technologies produces both HOCl and a range of High pH cleaners and degreasers

  Ø  HOCl is the chemical formula for hypochlorous acid—a weak acid formed when chlorine is dissolved in water.

  Ø  It is used as a superior replacement for bleach, an oxidizer, a odor killer, a sanitizer/disinfectant, and a cleaner with a 30-second-1 minute kill time on pathogens.

  Ø  It is 80—200 times stronger than bleach, but also safe for surfaces, plants, animals, and humans.

If water is purified by ozonation and UV, the problem of biofilm growth can be controlled.

Can Biofilm Growth be limited or controlled by Ozonation of the end product water? The ECA is the answer.  

Electro Chemical Activation:

The Electro Chemical Activation process, better known as ECA is not a new technology. Dating back to the 70’s, this technology was invented and used in Russia primarily in the mining industry for drill lubrication. In later years, greater benefits of the technology, particularly the Anolyte (disinfectant) solution became understood and then used in Russian hospitals for disinfection. ECA Technology is a replacement for traditional disinfection and chemical cleaning processes. ECA’s Anolyte and Catholyte solutions are created by mixing pure, readily available food grade salt with softened water, thereafter passing it through patented reactors, located inside the ECA device cabinets, which are the core of the ECA device. Once inside the reactor cells, the mild salt water is activated by way on an electrical charge and two distinct solutions are produced: 

        Ø  Anolyte which is used as a disinfectant

        Ø  Catholyte which is used as a detergent

ECA technology has secured FDA and EU approval for use as an advanced disinfectant in the food and beverage processing industries.

Biofilm in water systems can be eliminated with ‘ECA-Solution’ made from softened water and potassium chloride. Environmental friendly product produced and dosed with ECA-Unit. Drain-heaters en UV-units doesn’t have effect to bio-films, because they have no after-effect into water systems. Only disinfecting of the water in these machines is possible, but the negative side effect is this that they feed the biofilm! During a crop change period, without plants in the greenhouse, the biofilm in water systems can be removed with cleaning agents such as sodium hypochlorite and/or nitric acid in separate treatments. During plant growing season the biofilm can be prevented and controlled with the plant safe ECA-Solution. Apparently, the ECA-Unit is an extra advantage for clean and safe water systems besides the use of Drain heaters or UV-units.

Electrolysis of Water and Potassium chloride:

Electrolysis is a well known technology. The ECA-Unit makes in an electrolysis process from softened tap water with diluted potassium chloride a high quality ECA-Solution. This is a mix of free radicals and oxidants and these active compounds react with all kind of micro-organisms and eliminate them. For protection of electrolyser, membrane is needed high quality potassium chloride without anti-caking ingredients. The affair with Legionella from biofilms in water pipes brought ECA-Solution in the spotlight and has been subsequently developed for horticulture. Royal Brinkman started in 2007 with electrolysis systems in England and delivers since summer 2010 worldwide EAC-Units for use in greenhouse horticulture.

 ECA-Solution

ECA-Solution contains free chlorine as hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid. Last component is the most active one and is main component by pH 6 and lower. The free radicals and some oxidants of the ECA-Solution combat with biofilms and the pathogens hidden therein. ECA-Solution causes oxidation of all organic compounds in water and in the biofilm. The biofilm erodes to crumbled dirty which easily can be flushed out. Micro-organisms will no longer attach and hide themselves on clean walls. By a controlled dosage the ECA-Solution is no risk for plants and is safe for the nature environment. ECA-Solution is useful for disinfecting and cleaning of water installations for sprinkling and drip irrigation. ECA-Solution is effective as biocide to eliminate biofilms in water systems including the hidden place for all kind of micro-organism such as non pathogen and pathogens organism for plants. And last but not least, the free chlorine components from the electrolyzed potassium chloride will return to potassium fertilizer after they have done their good job.

Dosing ECA-Solution

Dosing of the ECA-Solution into the mixing vessel or dosing into another central location of the water system is PLC controlled and accurate based on water flow to the water installation. The needed concentration of ECA Solution depends on the degree of contamination in the entire water system (including tanks) at the start and varies from 6 to 10 ppm free chlorine. Once the pipes and water become clean the dosage may drop to 4 ppm or even lower. The effectiveness can be controlled via measuring of the free chlorine concentration in the water installation.

 Mechanical Cleaning Using “Pigging is probably the safest and most efficient way of cleaning the existing biofilm because of risk by flushing chemicals down a line. Pigging in the context of pipelines refers to the practice of using devices known as "pigs" to perform various maintenance operations on a pipeline. This is done without stopping the flow of the product in the pipeline. These operations include but are not limited to cleaning and inspecting the pipeline. This is accomplished by inserting the pig into a 'pig launcher' (or 'launching station') - an oversized section in the pipeline, reducing to the normal diameter. The launcher / launching station is then closed and the pressure-driven flow of the product in the pipeline is used to push it along down the pipe until it reaches the receiving trap – the 'pig catcher' (or 'receiving station').

The original pigs were made from straw wrapped in wire and used for cleaning. They made a squealing noise while traveling through the pipe, sounding to some like a pig squealing, which gave pigs their name. 'PIG' is sometimes claimed as an acronym or backronym derived from the initial letters of the term 'Pipeline Inspection Gauge' or 'Pipeline Intervention Gadget'.

Pigging has been used for many years to clean large diameter pipelines in the oil industry. Today, however, the use of smaller diameter pigging systems is now increasing in many continuous and batch process plants as plant operators search for increased efficiencies and reduced costs.

Pigging can be used for almost any section of the transfer process between, for example, blending, storage or filling systems. Pigging systems are already installed in industries handling products as diverse as lubricating oils, paints, chemicals, toiletries, cosmetics and foodstuffs.

Pigs are used in lube oil or paint blending to clean the pipes to avoid cross-contamination, and to empty the pipes into the product tanks (or sometimes to send a component back to its tank). Usually pigging is done at the beginning and at the end of each batch, but sometimes it is done in the midst of a batch, such as when producing a premix that will be used as an intermediate component.

Pigs are also used in oil and gas pipelines to clean the pipes. There are also 'smart pigs' used to inspect pipelines for the purpose of preventing leaks that can be explosive and dangerous to the environment. They usually do not interrupt production, though some product can be lost when the pig is extracted. They can also be used to separate different products in a multiproduct pipeline. If the pipeline contains butterfly valves, or reduced port ball valves, the pipeline cannot be pigged. Full port (or full bore) ball valves cause no problems because the inside diameter of the ball is the same as that of the pipe.

2. In large distribution systems it is common to top-up the disinfectant (Cl2) at more than one location to keep satisfactory levels at the end of the network without overdosing at the treatment works or reservoir.

3. Most importantly: Minimize biofouling and reduce disinfection by-products by improving the efficiency of the Treatment Works through better operation and maintenance. Only then look at upgrade options and newer or more appropriate technologies.

MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION:

 Securing the microbial safety of drinking-water supplies is based on the use of multiple barriers, from catchment to consumer, to prevent the contamination of drinking-water or to reduce contamination to levels not injurious to health. Safety is increased if multiple barriers are in place, including protection of water resources, proper selection and operation of a series of treatment steps and management of distribution systems (piped or otherwise) to maintain and protect treated water quality. The preferred strategy is a management approach that places the primary emphasis on preventing or reducing the entry of pathogens into water sources and reducing reliance on treatment processes for removal of pathogens.

In general terms, the greatest microbial risks are associated with ingestion of water that is contaminated with human or animal (including bird) faeces. Faeces can be a source of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths.

Faecally derived pathogens are the principal concerns in setting health-based targets for microbial safety. Microbial water quality often varies rapidly and over a wide range. Short-term peaks in pathogen concentration may increase disease risks considerably and may trigger outbreaks of waterborne disease. Furthermore, by the time microbial contamination is detected, many people may have been exposed. For these reasons, reliance cannot be placed solely on end-product testing, even when frequent, to ensure the microbial safety of drinking-water.

The biggest source of microbial contamination of drinking water is the cross contamination of leaking sewage with leaking treated drinking water in the underground tunnel. Apparently, the supply of microbial contaminants to drinking water pipelines almost remains unabated. However, within this limitation Chlorine dioxide is a very effective biocide to control biofilm. Chlorine dioxide works at very low level, it does not react with organic impurities to form THM and it works even in alkaline pH very effectively.

Trihalomethanes (THMs) are chemical compounds in which three of the four hydrogen atoms of methane (CH4) are replaced by halogen atoms. Many Trihalomethanes find uses in industry as solvents or refrigerants. THMs are also environmental pollutants, and many are considered carcinogenic. Trihalomethanes with all the same halogen atoms are called haloforms. Trihalomethanes are formed as a by-product predominantly when chlorine is used to disinfect water for drinking. They represent one group of chemicals generally referred to as disinfection by-products. They result from the reaction of chlorine or bromine with organic matter present in the water being treated. The THMs produced have been associated through epidemiological studies with some adverse health effects. Many governments set limits on the amount permissible in drinking water. However, Trihalomethanes are only one group of many hundreds of possible disinfection by-products—the vast majority of which are not monitored—and it has not yet been clearly demonstrated which of these are the most plausible candidate for causation of these health effects. In the United States, the EPA limits the total concentration of the four chief constituents (chloroform, bromoform, bromodichloromethane, and dibromochloromethane) referred to as (TTHM) to 80 parts per billion in treated water.

Chloroform is also formed in swimming pools which are disinfected with chlorine or hypochlorite in the haloform reaction with organic substances (e.g. urine, sweat, hair and skin particles). Some of the THMs are quite volatile and may easily vaporize into the air. This makes it possible to inhale THMs while showering, for example. The EPA, however, has determined that this exposure is minimal compared to that from consumption. In swimmers, uptake of THMs is greatest via the skin with dermal absorption accounting for 80 per cent of THM uptake. Exercising in a chlorinated pool increases the toxicity of a "safe" chlorinated pool atmosphere with toxic effects of chlorine byproducts greater in young swimmers than older swimmers. Studies in adolescents have shown an inverse relationship between serum testosterone levels and the amount of time spent in public pools. Chlorination by-products have been linked as a probable cause.

CHLORITARD: 

CHLORITARD is the unique way to treat / disinfect entire bulk of water required for all activities at the 'Point of Consumption ‘and can  simply be described as “Scientist’s Dream Product” as it fulfills all the criteria for purified water. When a CHLORITARD pouch is suspended in a water storage tank, it releases chlorine slowly in the water for a period of at least 30 days continuously. It prevents quick release of Chlorine and maintains free Chlorine level 
to more than 0.2 ppm. The amount of chlorine released is sufficient to kill the bacteria present in the water as well as maintain desired level of free residual chlorine (above 0.2 ppm) for inhibiting rejuvenation and propagation of bacteria by “Dark Repair” process. Thus, the water treated with CHLORITARD becomes totally safe and hygienic. Since chlorine gets released very slowly, CHLORITARD has much longer shelf life as compared to that of bleaching powder. CHLORITARD pouches are available in various sizes depending on Tank Capacity and daily water consumption. Slow release of chlorine of this measured dose is adjusted to kill present bacteria and to maintain desired level of free residual chlorine. Thus, the water treated with CHLORITARD becomes totally safe to use. 

Need of CHLORITARD

The incidences of water borne diseases are found to be 3000 to 4000 times higher in the families treating only drinking water using sophisticated equipment with latest technology and even boiling water. These findings are statistically, scientifically significant and are accepted, are published in leading Health Journal from London: The Lancet March 1997. The use of contaminated water can result in water borne disease. For example, one person with cholera excretes 1013 infectious bacteria every day. The infectious dose of cholera is about 106 bacteria or so, thus theoretically one person can infect up to 10 million people every day!! 
Salient Features: 

The application of CHLORITARD does not require machinery, electricity, skilled operator and daily monitoring .Slow release of chlorine offers much longer shelf life, as compared to that of bleaching powder. The advantage of measured dose with slow release mechanism avoids excess chlorination. Calcium does not get transferred to water but remains in the pouch when CHLORITARD pouch is suspended in water storage tank. This eliminates problem of sludge formation and recontamination of water. 

Use of CHLORITARD at the point of consumption does not give time to bacteria to grow, as water is consumed immediately as soon as it is out of water tank Able to provide a residual effect for sufficient time to guard against re contamination and be in line with the internationally accepted guidelines on water quality Simple and safe to use, distribute and transport, including in remote areas.

CHLORITARD has been submitted to WHO International Scheme to Evaluate Household Water Treatment Technologies at negligible cost of US$0.0001 – US$0.0008 per litre( for 30 days depending upon on the water reservoir/tank treated as per capacity of tank ( 100 liters to 50,000 liters  x 30 days) for 30 days.

CHLORITARD is safe water controlling pouch for water storage tank/ over-head tanks in apartments/Bungalows/storage tanks maintaining 0.5 ppm. Thus safe water cleans from contamination and saves money on doctor/medical bills.

CHLORITARD is available in pouches suitable from chlorine=0.5 ppm regulation/control depending upon storage tank size – 100 liter to 50,000 litre x 30 days ( chlorine control = 0.5 ppm). Apparently, one pouch for 500 litres if purchased controls chlorine – 0.5 ppm for 30 days, i.e. US $ 7.95 (1 pouch) CHLORITARD for 500 litres x 30 days = 15,000 litres per month = reservoir tank treated = INR 1 to 2 paise per litre- control of chlorine = 0.5 ppm( killing pathogens + G I (Gastrointestinal)  disease.

As one CHLORITARD pouch works effectively for at least 30 days, the problem of climbing up the ESR every day is eliminated. This leaves very little scope for irregularity & lapses in dosing, which are more harmful.

While using CHLORITARD it is not necessary to ascertain the chlorine demand of water because CHLORITARD pouch automatically releases amount of chlorine required to satisfy chlorine demand and maintain free residual chlorine. Only the required quantity of chlorine is released hence there is no possibility of excess chlorine, which is commonly observed by any other methods of dosing chlorine. 

Thus chloramines formation possibility is remote when Chloritard is used for water disinfection. Hence the only disadvantage of using chlorine for water disinfection can be eliminated. The chlorine level of the water being treated with CHLORITARD remains consistent for a period of at least 30 days. Therefore problem of drastic variation in chlorine levels with time encountered in other methods of chlorine dosing including by bleaching     powder is totally eliminated. 

As one CHLORITARD pouch works effectively for at least 30 days, the problem of climbing up the ESR every day is eliminated. This leaves very little scope for irregularity & lapses in dosing, which are more harmful.   Thus it can be said that

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

There are two process technologies that could be used for drinking water treatment

Capacitive Recovery System:

This is a process used for the removal of contaminants from drinking water by removing both nitrates and ammonia. This process is part of electricity based desalination process and it removes anions and cations. The process has a much higher water recovery than Reverse Osmosis i. e. it is up to 90 per cent more efficient.

Pure Water:

This is a practical solution for short or long term clean water supply, is easily transportable, fully automated, can be remotely monitored and controlled, has a low capex (capital expenditure) and conforms to HSE (Health and Safety Environment) requirements as well as exceeding and or meeting DWI (Drinking Water Institute) and WHO (World Health Organization) standards, has very low energy usage, does not use reverse osmosis or traditional chlorine generators. The treated water is microbiologically safe to drink and with no detectable presence of coli forms ( including E Coli) Clostridia Perfringens or Enterococci, its sterilizing and disinfectant qualities means that system is kept clean and prolongs storage life of treated water .

Interesting question: there are some physical methods (membranes, ultrasound) that can be very effective on the local biofilm control... and they let no "taste" on the water.... however, I think that you want to have a good and safety water, a consumption point (end of pipe) filter might be requested.

The bacteria survive from treatment and due to contamination through finished water reservoirs enter pipe network and develops EPS which protects bacteria and attracts more bacteria to attach on the pipe wall. It has been observed a thick biofilm of 2 to 4mm which largely increase head loss along the pipe. But Mechanical Scraping may not be cheaper and not easy also. The question is how we clean this biofilm layer from the pipeline using cheaper and safer method.

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 is a comprehensive legislation that regulates agencies responsible for checking on water pollution and ambit of pollution control boards both at the centre and states. The Water Act, 1974 was adopted by the Indian parliament with the aim of prevention and control of Water Pollution in India. The Act was amended in 1988. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977, to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.Some of the important sections regulating the prevention of water pollution as per the act are as discussed below.      

Functions of the State Board

The Central Pollution Control Board, and State Pollution Control Boards composition, terms and conditions of service of members are defined in Sections 3-12 of water (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974. The Board advises the government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of water pollution. It coordinates the activities and provides technical assistance and guidance. This policy sets the standards and penalties for non-compliance for polluting bodies. The Government has power to restrict any unit, and to take samples of effluents and get them analyzed in Central or State laboratories. Whoever fails to comply with any provision of this Act is punishable with imprisonment, fine or with both. 

Section 17 of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 clearly lists all functions of the respective state boards for countering water pollution. The state board of respective states is empowered to plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution of streams and wells, collect and disseminate information relating to water pollution and encourage, conduct and participate in investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention.

The state water boards also have the right to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works and plants for the treatment of sewage and trade effluents and to review all water purification plants. The Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently, including the analysis of samples of water from any stream or well or of samples of any sewage or trade effluents.

The Central Board may perform all or any of the following functions, namely,-

  Ø  advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of water pollution;

  Ø  co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them;

  Ø  provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;

  Ø  plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central Board may specify;

  Ø  organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and control of water pollution;

  Ø  collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution and the measures devised for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate information connected therewith;

  Ø  lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government concerned, the standards for a stream or well;

  Ø  plan and execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;

  Ø  perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

Consent of the State Board is necessary to discharge sewage

Section 25 of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 states that Prior Consent of the State Board under section 25 is necessary to set up any industry, plant or process which is likely to discharge sewage or trade effluent into a stream or well or sewer or on land or bring into use any new or altered outlets for the discharge of sewage or begin to make any new discharge of sewage. The section further states that every State Board is liable to maintain a register containing particulars or conditions imposed under the section related to any outlet, or to any effluent, from any land or premises which must be open to inspection by the state board.

Power to Take Emergency Measures

Section 32 of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 describes the power to take emergency measures in case of pollution of stream or well. Under the act, State Board may issue orders to re move the matter, which is, or may cause pollution; or remedy or mitigate the pollution, or issue prohibition orders to the concerned persons from discharging any poisonous or noxious or polluting matter.

Section 24 and 43 of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 relate to prohibition on use of stream or well for disposal of polluting matter and penalty for contravention thereof Under the scope of the provision, no person shall knowingly cause or permit any poisonous, noxious or polluting mater as determined by the State Board to enter into any stream or sewer or on land. Anyone failing to abide by the laws of under is liable for imprisonment under Section 24 & Section 43 ranging from not less than one year and six months to six years along with monetary fines. The section further states that No person shall knowingly cause or permit to enter any other matter which may impede the flow of water of the stream causing pollution of any kind.

Penalties and Fines

Section 42 of the of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 states penalties and fines for certain acts including pulling down pillars, Obstructs any person acting under the orders or direction of the Board, Damages any works or property belonging to the Board and Failure to furnish any officer other employee of the Board any information required. The fine and penalty includes Imprisonment for a term which may extend up to three months or with fine to Rs. 10,000/- or both.

Understanding Water Class

Depending on the pollution of the water, water is demarked under various water classes in accordance with the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. Drinking water at source found without conventional treatment but after disinfection is designated as Class A while water designated for outdoor bathing comes under Class B. Any drinking water source which has been conventionally treated comes under Class C while water used for propagation of wildlife and fisheries is demarked as Class D. Water under Class E is used for irrigation and industrial cooling along with waste disposal.

All people have safe and equitable access to a sufficient quantity of water for drinking, cooking and personal and domestic hygiene. Public water points are sufficiently close to households to enable use of the minimum water requirement.

Key Indicators

  Ø  Average water use for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene in any household is at least 15 litres per person per day.

  Ø  The maximum distance from any household to the nearest water point is 500 metres.

  Ø  Queuing time at a water source is no more than 15 minutes.

  Ø  It takes no more than three minutes to fill a 20-litre container.

  Ø  Water sources and systems are maintained such that appropriate quantities of water are available consistently or on a regular basis.

 

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Comments

  • Sir, I belong to Hapur,UP, and working on analysis of underground water, guide me
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